A Governor-General (in Canada, Governor General) is most generally a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above 'ordinary' governors [1]. The most common contemporary usage of the term is to refer to the royally-appointed territorial governor of a region, or royal representative in a country or realm. The term is thus sometimes taken to be the same as viceroy or royal governor.
British Colonialism and the Governor-General
The term Governor-General is most likely to occur in in the context of the former British empire or a former British colony that is now a Commonwealth Realm, while most former colonies became republics.
Governors-General notionally hold the prerogative powers of the monarch he is representing, and also hold the executive power of the country to which he is assigned. This means that the Governor-General has the power to certify or veto law (Royal Assent), and is also the head of the armed forces in his territory. History shows many examples of governors-general using their perogative and executive powers but nowadays it is rare to see these powers being used unilaterally, in line with modern constitutional convention. The monarch can overrule a governor-general—in the past this was cumbersome due to the often large distances from London. In modern times overruling a governor-general can be impractical or impermissible due to local conditions or sensitivities (as demonstrated in the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975) [2].
Because of the Governor-General's control of the military in the territory, the post was as much a military appoitment as a civil one. Indeed, right up until modern times, the Governor-General's official attire was the court dress, Windsor uniform or other military uniform, but this practice been abandoned in most jurisdictions in modern times.
In some colonies, the title of the royal representative was never than Governor-General. The King's representative in New Zealand, for instance, was simply titled Governor (earlier even Lieutenant gvernor, still lolwer in rank) till after the country became a dominion.
Modern Times
In former British Colonies
Today in former colonies which are still Commonwealth realms, the Governor-General acts strictly under the instruction of the national Prime Minister, most often in accordance with the Westminster system. In particular, see the history of the Governor-General of Australia. The Governor-General is still the local representative of the Sovereign as head of state and performs the same duties as they did historically, though their role is almost purely ceremonial. A rare and controversial exception occurred in 1975, when the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam.
The Governor-General is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; but some countries have also appointed prominent figures from sport, academia, the clergy, philanthrophy or the news media to the office. The Governor-General is formally appointed by the Monarch, following the specific request of the Prime Minister of the country concerned. Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are the only realms that elect their Governors-General in some form: selection by a parliamentary vote.
In former colonies no longer part of the Commonwealth, the Governor-General and British monarch have been replaced by an elected (sometimes non-executive) head of state. See the article on Commonwealth realms for a list of current and former members.
Commonwealth usages
Today the title Governor-General is used in countries which recognise the British Sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II as the titular head of state, or monarch, excluding the United Kingdom.
In its modern usage, the term "Governor-General" originated in those British colonies which became self-governing "Dominions," as they were at one time styled, of the British Empire; (examples are Australia, Canada and New Zealand). With the exception of New Zealand, each of these federated colonies' previously constituent colonies already had a Governor, and the Queen's representative to the federated "Dominion" was therefore given the superior title Governor-General. New Zealand was granted Dominion status in 1907, but as it never was a federal state there was no pressing need to change the gubernatorial title. Finally on 28 June 1917 the Earl of Liverpool was appointed the first Governor-General of New Zealand. Another non-federal state, Newfoundland, was a dominion for 16 years with the Queen's representative retaining the title of Governor throughout this time. Since the 1950's, however, the term Governor-General was given to all representatives of the sovereign in independent Commonwealth realms. In these cases, the former colonial Governor was "upgraded" (sometimes for the same incumbent) to the title of Governor-General upon independence as the nature of the office became a universal 'constitutional figurehead' position, no longer a symbol of colonial rule.
In these countries, now known as Commonwealth Realms, the Governor-General acts as the Monarch's representative, performing all the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a Head of state.
The Governor-General may exercise almost all the reserve powers of the Monarch. Except in rare cases, the Governor-General only acts in accordance with constitutional convention and upon the advice of the Prime Minister. A rare and controversial case of a Governor General independently exercising his authority occurred in 1975, when the Governor-General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam.
In principle, the crown could overrule a Governor-General, but this has not happened in modern times.
Appointment
Until the 1920s, the Governors-General were British, appointed on the advice of the British Government, and acted as the representative of the British Government in each Dominion. The Governor-General could be instructed by the Colonial Secretary on the exercise of some of his functions and duties, such as the use or withholding of the Royal Assent from legislation. In 1931, as a result of discussions at the 1926 Commonwealth Conference and the resulting Balfour Declaration, the Statute of Westminster was enacted and this aspect of the role was abolished. The Governor-General became the direct representative of the country's Sovereign only, and governmental relations with the United Kingdom were placed in the hands of a British High commissioner in each country.
Also, in 1929, the Australian Prime Minister James Scullin established the right of a Dominion Prime Minister to advise the Monarch directly on the appointment of a Governor-General, by insisting that his choice (Sir Isaac Isaacs, an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor-General (or Governor General) is a citizen of the country concerned, and is appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government. The first Governor-General of India was Lord Mountbatten, who had been the last Viceroy; the second (and last) Governor-General was Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari; thereafter the post was replaced with the largely equivalent post of non-executive President under the 1950 Indian Constitution.
Commonwealth Countries with Governors-General
Clicking on the country above will take you the relevant Governor-General article.
The Governor-General is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; but some countries have also appointed prominent figures from sport, academia, the clergy, philanthrophy or the news media to the office. The Governor-General is formally appointed by the Monarch, following the specific request of the Prime Minister of the country concerned. Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are the only realms that elect their Governors-General in some form: selection by a parliamentary vote.
Other attributes
- Main article: Administrator of the Government
Different realms have different constitutional arrangements governing who acts in place of the Governor-General following his or her death, resignation, or incapacity.
- In Australia, the government of the day nominates a person as "Administrator of the Commonwealth" to perform the necessary official functions, pending a decision and consultation with the Sovereign about a permanent replacement as Governor-General. By convention, the Administrator has usually been the senior Governor of the Australian states, but there is nothing to prevent a different person from being appointed.
- In Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand, it is the Chief Justice.
- In Papua New Guinea, it is the Speaker of the House.
- Many Caribbean countries have a specific office of "Deputy Governor-General."
Most Commonwealth countries that originally had Governors-General are now republics, with the head of state being an autochthonous President. Some are parliamentary republics, like India, where the presidency is a ceremonial post, like the British monarch. In others, like South Africa, the presidency is an executive post, as in the United States. Australia held a referendum on becoming a parliamentary republic in 1999, but this was rejected. The current governments of Barbados and Jamaica have announced plans to hold referenda on becoming republics, in each case with a ceremonial President replacing the Queen as head of state, as occurred in Trinidad and Tobago in 1976. It is not known whether these plans will proceed, however, nor whether the referenda would approve the changes.
Traditionally, the Governor-General's official attire was the court dress, Windsor uniform or other military uniform, but this practice been abandoned in most jurisdictions in modern times. In South Africa, the Governors-General of the Union nominated by the AfrikanerNationalist government chose not to wear the uniform. Most Governors-General continue to wear ceremonial medals on their clothing during special occasions, however.
In most Commonwealth realms, the flag of the Governor-General has been the standard pattern of a blue flag with the Royal Crest (lion standing on a crown) above a scroll with the name of the jurisdiction. In Canada, however, this was replaced with a lion (with a crown) clasping a maple leaf. In the Solomon Islands, the scroll is replaced with a two-headed frigate bird motif, while in Fiji, the former Governor-General's flag featured a whale's tooth.
Governors-General are accorded the style of His/Her Excellency. This style is also extended to their spouses, whether female or male (for an example of the latter case, see Jean-Daniel Lafond).
Former colonial Commonwealth posts
The title has been is use in many British colonial entities that either no longer exist or no longer are under colonial administration.
in the Americas
- The Federation of the West Indies (Antigua, Barbados, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Turks and Caicos Islands), less commonly referred to as British Caribbean Federation, had a single governor-general during its short existence, 3 January 1958 - 31 May 1962: Governor-general Patrick George Thomas Buchan-Hepburn, Baron Hailes (b. 1901 - d. 1974); besides him was a Prime minister since 18 April 1958
in Asia
- British India (the subcontinent)- confer Viceroy
in British Africa
- 1 August 1953 - 31 December 1963 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (also called the Central African Federation) comprising Southern Rhodesia (present Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (present Zambia) and Nysaland (present Malawi)
Former post-colonial posts representing the British Sovereign as local Head of State
(list possibly incomplete)
In Africa
- Gambia, two incumbents:
- 18 February 1965 - 9 February 1966 Sir John Warburton Paul (b. 1916 - d. 2004), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 9 February 1966 - 24 April 1970 Sir Farimang Mamadi Singateh (b. 1912); since then a republic
- Ghana:
- 6 March 1957 - 24 June 1957 Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke (b. 1898 - d. 1962), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 24 June 1957 - 1 July 1960 William Francis Hare, Earl of Listowel (b. 1906 - d. 1997); next it became Africa's first republic
- Kenya: 12 December 1963 - 12 December 1964 Malcolm John MacDonald (b. 1901 - d. 1981), formerly the last colonial Governor; next a republic
- Malawi: 6 July 1964 - 6 July 1966 Sir Glyn Smallwood Jones (b. 1908 - d. 1992), formerly the last colonial Governor (till 1963 of 'Nyassaland')
- Nigeria:
- 1 October 1954 - 15 June 1955 Sir John Stuart Macpherson (b. 1898 - d. 1971) Non-party, formerly the last colonial Governor in a line starting in 1919 after a single colonial Governor-general (since 1914)
- 15 June 1955 - 16 November 1960 Sir James Wilson Robertson (b. 1899 - d. 1983) Non-party
- 16 November 1960 - 1 October 1963 Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe (b. 1904 - d. 1996) NCNC; next a republic
- Sierra Leone:
- 27 April 1961 - 27 April 1962 Sir Maurice Henry Dorman (b. 1902 - d. 1993), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 27 April 1962 - April 1967 Sir Henry Josiah Lightfoot Boston (b. 1898 - d. 1969) (acting to 27 Jul 1962)
- April 1967 - 18 April 1968 Andrew Terence Juxon-Smith (acting)(b. 1933 - d. 1970) Mil
- 18 April 1968 - 22 April 1968 John Amadu Bangura (acting) (b. 1930 - d. 1971)
- 22 April 1968 - 31 March 1971 Banja Tejan-Sie (from 1970, Sir Banja Tejan-Sie) (b. 1917 - d. 2000)
- 31 March 1971 - 19 April 1971 Christopher Okoro Cole (acting) (b. 1921 - d.af.1990); next he was the first president
- Governor-General of the Union of South Africa from 31 May 1910 when Cape, Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal united as a dominion (Union of South Africa) till the 31 May 1961 declaration of the Republic of South Africa.
- Tanzania: 9 December 1961 - 9 December 1962 Sir Richard Gordon Turnbull (b. 1909 - d. 1998), formerly the last colonial Governor; next a republic
- Uganda: 9 October 1962 - 9 October 1963 Sir Walter Fleming Coutts (b. 1912 - d. 1988), formerly the last colonial Governor; next a republic
- a special case was Rhodesia (present Zimbabwe)'s single Officer Administering the Government, Clifford Walter Dupont (b. 1905 - d. 1978), RF, who was performing the role of a Governor general during the 'Government carried on in the name of the absent and non-consenting Queen of the United Kingdom Elizabeth II', 11 November 1965 - 2 March 1970, since the 11 November 1965 unilateral declaration of independence from Britain of its colony (formerly Southern Rhodesia; not recognized), till 2 March 1970, when the same man sort of succeeded himself as first President of the unilaterally independent Republic of Rhodesia (still not recognized), till 31 December 1975
In the Americas
- Guyana:
- 26 May 1966 - 16 December 1966 Sir Richard Edmonds Luyt (b. 1915 - d. 1994), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 16 December 1966 - 10 November 1969 Sir David James Gardiner Rose (b. 1923 - d. 1969)
- 10 November 1969 - 22 February 1970 Sir Edward Victor Luckhoo (acting) (b. 1912 - d. 1998); next under a President
- Trinidad and Tobago:
- 31 August 1962 - 15 September 1972 Sir Solomon Hochoy (b. 1905 - d. 1983), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 15 September 1972 - 1 August 1976 Sir Ellis Emmanuel Innocent Clarke (b. 1917)
In Asia
- India
- 15 August 1947 - 21 June 1948 Louis Francis Mountbatten, Earl Mountbatten of Burma (s.a.), formerly the last colonial Viceroy
- 21 June 1948 - 26 January 1950 Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (b. 1878 - d. 1972); next a republic
- Governor-General of Pakistan
- 15 August 1947 - 11 September 1948 Mohammad Ali Jinnah (b. 1876 - d. 1948) ML
- 14 September 1948 - 17 October 1951 Khwaja Nazimuddin (b. 1894 - d. 1964) ML
- 17 October 1951 - 6 October 1955 Ghulam Mohammad (b. 1895 - d. 1956) ML
- 6 October 1955 - 23 March 1956 Iskandar Ali Mirza (b. 1899 - d. 1969) Mil; since then a republic
- Sri Lanka:
- 4 February 1948 - 6 July 1949 Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore (b. 1887 - d. 1964), formerly the last colonial Governor (of 'Ceylon')
- 6 July 1949 - 17 July 1954 Herwald Ramsbotham, Baron Soulbury (b. 1887 - d. 1971)
- 17 July 1954 - 2 March 1962 Sir Oliver Ernest Goonetilleke (b. 1892 - d. 1978)
- 2 March 1962 - 22 May 1972 William Gopallawa (b. 1897 - d. 1981)); next he was the first President
In Europe
- Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] Governor-General of the Irish Free State dominion 6 December 1922 till 29 December 1937 ().
- Malta:
- 21 September 1964 - 4 July 1971 Sir Maurice Henry Dorman (b. 1902 - d. 1993), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 4 July 1971 - 13 December 1974 Sir Anthony Joseph Mamo (b. 1909); next he was the first President
In Oceania
- Fiji:
- 10 October 1970 - 13 January 1973 Sir Robert Sidney Foster (b. 1913 - d. 2005), formerly the last colonial Governor
- 13 January 1973 - 12 February 1983 Ratu Sir George Cakobau (b. 1912 - d. 1989)
- 12 February 1983 - 6 October 1987 Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau (b. 1918 - d. 1993); it became a republic under a President on 5 December 1987
Other Colonial and similar usages
French
The equivalent word in French is gouverneur général
Netherlands
From 1691 to 1948 the Dutch appointed a Gouverneur-generaal ('Governor-General') to govern the Netherlands East Indies, now Indonesia.
Other Netherlands Dependent Areas:
Spanish
- Since 21 November 1564 the Spanish colony Islas Filipinas had governors-general, subordinated to the viceroyalty of New Spain (in Mexico) to 1821.
U.S.
- From 1905 to 1935 the Philippines (since 13 August 1898 a U.S territory; first under three Military and two ordinary Governors) was administered by a series of Governors General appointed by the United States.
Other Western usages
=?* From 1636 to 1815, the Governors-General of Sweden typically were appointed for the Swedish Dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic and in northern Germany, but occasionally also for Scania.
Asian counterparts
- From 1644 to 1911, in Qing-dynasty China, a Governor General or zongdu (Chinese: 总督) was the highest official of joint military and civil affairs in one or several provinces (alternately translated as Viceroy)
- Imperial Japan:
See also
- Administrator of the Government
- Lieutenant-Governor
- High Commissioner
- Governor-General of the Philippines
- Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles; territories of the Dutch Monarchy
- Guberniya; an administrative sub-division of Imperial Russia headed by the equivalent of a governor-general
- Each current British Commonwealth realm's Governor-Generals have their own article:
- Some former colonial Commonwealth posts: Governor-General of the Irish Free State, Governor-General of the Federation of the West Indies
- Some former post-colonial posts representing the British Sovereign as local Head of State in the Americas Governor-General of British Guyana, Governor-General of Trinidad and Tobago
- Some former post-colonial posts representing the British Sovereign as local Head of State in Africa: Governor-General of Nigeria, Governor-General of Sierra Leone, Governor-General of Tanzania, Governor-General of the Union of South Africa, Governor-General of Uganda, Governor-General of Gambia, Governor-General of Kenya, Governor-General of Ghana, Governor-General of Malawi, Governor-General of Rhodesia
- Some former post-colonial posts representing the British Sovereign as local Head of State in the Asia Governor-General of India, Governor-General of Pakistan, Governor-General of Sri Lanka
- Some former post-colonial posts representing the British Sovereign as local Head of State in the Eurpoe Governor-General of Malta
- Some former post-colonial posts representing the British Sovereign as local Head of State in the Oceania Governor-General of Fiji
Sources and references
(incomplete)
- ^ "Governor General" definition on Dictionar.com (retrieved February 14th, 2006)
- ^ Letter from the Queen's Private Secretary to the Speaker of the House of Representatives of Australia of 17 November 1975, at The Whitlam Dismissal, retrieved February 15, 2006.
